Our world is facing tremendous and unprecedented environmental challenges, including climate change, biodiversity extinction, food insecurity, and public health crises. In the global south, many of these environmental challenges affect millions of livelihoods each day. The Sahel region of West Africa is experiencing expanding violent extremism, state fragility and conflict, and intense climate change impacts. Poverty, poor governance, and corruption further exacerbate local grievances and weaken and undermine fragile states. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)’s “Advancing Gender in the Environment: Exploring the triple nexus of gender inequality, state fragility, and climate change” study (Boyer et al. 2020), elucidated the interaction of the three factors and critical vulnerability (“triple nexus”). Environmental and political instability in the Sahel region continues to put pressure and stress on already fragile and scarce local economic resources and on limited social infrastructure, in turn, compounding social inequality (Wilson Center 2022).
Given the intensity and severity at which environmental and political events are unfolding in the Sahel, it is imperative to have a greater understanding of the effects of climate change and state fragility within each country, as well as regionally. From September 2022 through September 2023, INRM conducted a study on behalf of USAID/Senegal/Sahel Regional Office (SRO) and USAID Sahel Country Offices to better understand the context-specific local drivers and root causes leading to the triple nexus challenge in the region to help inform USAID programming and regional interventions.
Building on research to date, the study sought to better understand the drivers of gender inequality, state fragility, and climate and environmental vulnerability in Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Mauritania, and explored intervention opportunities and priorities to inform future USAID policy and programming in the region. The study’s primary research question was, what are the drivers of gender inequality, climate vulnerability, and instability in the Sahel and their interlinkages? The team explored whether there are shared drivers and opportunities across countries and the region, as well as shared programming opportunities to build resilience and stability, and inform interventions to prevent and address violent extremism in the region. A literature review identified common themes on climate, gender, and state fragility across the Sahel and informed research design for the focal countries, and the identification of case studies. Background research included interviews undertaken with seven USAID implementing partner institutions working in the Sahel, along with consultations with relevant academic, development, security, and other sector experts. Research design was developed together with local expert consultants from each of the five focal countries.
In-country field data collection was undertaken between May and July 2023. The team conducted semistructured interviews with relevant government and Ministry officials and other key intuitional representatives at the national level in each of the five countries (three-to-six national-level interviews per country). The team conducted local data collection through semi-structured interviews with key informants (including local officials, traditional leaders, women’s groups, NGOs, and other actors with knowledge about the triple nexus) in two provinces in each of the five countries, specifically in areas INRM Final Report: Sahel Triple Nexus 1 experiencing recent and ongoing instability and/or recent and ongoing climate change impacts. The regions surveyed included:
- Burkina Faso: Centre-Ouest and Centre-Nord regions,
- Chad: Mandoul and Batha regions,
- Mali: Mopti and Koulikourou regions,
- Mauritania: Gorgol and Hodh El Gharbi regions,
- Niger: Tahoua and Maradi regions.
The resulting 80 key informant interviews provided a geographic range and cultural diversity of information sources from key areas where the factors of climate change, security, and gender equity are most impactful in the Sahel region.
Given the limited number of informants, a snowball sampling method was employed to ensure the targeting of participants who were most informed on the topic areas. Case studies were identified and developed regarding particularly important local initiatives demonstrating progress and/or lessons learned regarding the climate, gender, and state fragility nexus and which have significant potential to inform USAID strategy and future programming. Building from the survey results, case studies were identified and developed on:
- “Accessibility to water and land for vulnerable people in the Centre-Nord region, Burkina Faso”
- “Toda, a committed community: Climate change and the promotion of peace through the status of women in a volatile security environment, Niger”
- “Influence of conflict and insecurity on climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives in Bandiagara and Banamba areas of Mali”
- “Women-led development of the fishing industry in Lac Fitri area of Batha region, Chad to strengthen the resilience of local communities to climate change”
- “Climate change adaptation, cohabitation between pastoralists and farmers, and promotion of gender equity in Toufoundé Civé, Gorgol region, Mauritania”
The study results generated detailed information on climate change, gender inequity, insecurity drivers, temporal and spatial factors, interrelationships, and impacts in a diverse range of ethnic groups, geographies, and ecosystems across the Sahel. Emerging regional climate, gender, and state fragility nexus themes include migration, transhumance pastoralism, natural resource management, and health (physical and mental). Data analyses examined experiences of climate change in each country and region surveyed; responses to climate change (institutional approaches and community-based solutions); experiences of state fragility; and climate and state fragility nexus with a gender lens (gender roles mitigating the impacts of state fragility, climate change, and natural resource management conflict). Emerging themes were identified on gendered demographic change (impacts of transhumance governance, economic migration, and displacement on civil society) and climate change and state fragility impacts on the physical and mental health of local communities.
Climate change and state fragility were reported to be impacting populations’ movements creating increased conflict. These populations include Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), seasonal and permanent migrations, transhumance pastoralism, and population movements in relation to shifting INRM Final Report: Sahel Triple Nexus 2 security fronts. The study found evidence of changing gender roles in the Sahel region, including areas where men left (migrated, died), and women remained and are taking on stronger leading roles and responsibilities as heads of households and communities (e.g., as reported for some areas of Mauritania, Niger, Chad), and areas where women and girls moved from their home areas due to conflict and climate-induced hardships, making them more vulnerable (e.g., areas of Mali and Burkina Faso). The movement of boys and girls to urban areas where they are often vulnerable and subject to abuse were identified as serious factors. Some young boys in Chad were reported to be forced into “labor” as livestock attendants. Mental health impacts of climate change and state fragility on households were clearly reported across the survey areas. Men are particularly affected by the lack of ability to provide economically for their families due to conflicts and climate change. This results in mental illness (e.g., depression and a sense of identity loss for men). Women also suffer because men under mental illness conditions often become violent.
Natural resource-related conflicts exacerbated by pressures and scarcity related to climate change and insecurity were reported as the primary source of violence in the surveyed areas. Observations on local conflicts over natural resources and the impacts of climate change on conflict and poverty have important implications for countering extremist group expansion in the region. Transhumance pastoralism has been seriously impacted by climate change and insecurity throughout the region, resulting in conflict from competition with farmers, changing movement patterns, and suspicions of or links with violent extremist groups. The role of women in communications and relations between local farming communities, and between transhumance pastoralists and armed groups (through bartering and sale of milk, meat, and other products) provides an important opportunity to improve gender equity and mitigate conflict. Grievances involving land claims, extortion of transhumance pastoralists in exchange for access, and other forms of corruption by local government authorities in remote rural areas were cited among the reasons some individuals perceive alternative dispute resolution opportunities with violent extremists and other armed groups.
Policy frameworks to address gender inequity and climate change are in place in each of the five Sahel countries surveyed, with varying degrees of recognition and application. Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali seem to have particularly strong gender equity policy frameworks. Study respondents indicated that despite policies in place, Mauritania and Chad have particularly entrenched societal gender inequities. Policy implementation promoting gender and women’s roles is less advanced compared to the other three countries. Youth were found to be very aware, well-informed, and motivated to engage in efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change in several surveyed areas (e.g., Mali). The study identified climate finance opportunities in relation to the Sahel Triple Nexus and outlined local, country, and regional programming opportunities.
A set of recommendations from local stakeholders, USAID implementing partners, and in-depth analyses of the Sahel Triple Nexus investigation’s findings are presented to assist USAID/SRO and USAID Sahel Country Offices to inform future programming design, priorities, and options to address the drivers of gender inequality, climate vulnerability, and state fragility in the Sahel. Transboundary and regional factors, and complex bilateral relations in the Sahel, require flexible and coherent regional environmental and stabilization interventions. Building on results of this study and aligned with the U.S. Government policy framework and strategies, USAID is critically positioned to support Sahel states, civil INRM Final Report: Sahel Triple Nexus 3 society, and local communities to secure and stabilize the region, promote democracy and prevent backsliding, mitigate and adapt to climate change, address gender inequity and empower women, sustainably manage natural resources, and catalyze sustainable economic development.